UNIVERZA V MARIBORU FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko MAGISTRSKO DELO Sara Čizmazija Maribor, 2018

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1 UNIVERZA V MARIBORU FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko MAGISTRSKO DELO Sara Čizmazija Maribor, 2018

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3 UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR FACULTY OF ARTS Department of English and American Studies Master's Thesis A Comparative Analysis of Transitivity and Conjunctions in Selected Newspaper Articles in English Magistrsko delo Primerjalna analiza tranzitivnosti in veznikov v izbranih časopisnih člankih v angleščini Mentor: Doc. dr. Katja Plemenitaš Candidate: Sara Čizmazija Maribor, 2018

4 Lektorica slovenskega povzetka: Maja Razboršek, profesorica slovenščine

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To my little boy Maks, who spent the very first days of his life writing my master s thesis with me. I am sincerely thankful to my mentor, doc.dr. Katja Plemenitaš, for her guidance and insights while writing my master s thesis. Special thank you goes to my family and my amazing partner Marko for their support and love during the writing process.

6 POVZETEK Cilj pričujoče magistrske naloge je analizirati diskurz izbranih časopisnih člankov po teoriji sistemske funkcijske slovnice Michaela Hallidaya in po teoriji veznikov kot izraza logično-semantičnih odnosov po modelu Jamesa Martina in Davida Rosa. Diskurzna analiza, opravljena v tej magistrski nalogi ima, dva cilja. Najprej se študija osredotoča na ugotavljanje tipa procesa, udeležencev in okoliščin v vsakem stavku teksta glede na Hallidayevo analizo tranzitivnosti. Razen tega pa teza raziskuje diskurzivne odnose v tekstih s pomočjo analize veznikov glede na teorijo kohezivnosti po Martinu in Rosu. Korpus, uporabljen v pričujoči nalogi, je sestavljen iz štirih različnih člankov, ki so bili izbrani na spletnih straneh časopisov. Dva članka sta objavljena na spletnih straneh časopisov velikega formata, to sta Washington Post in The Guardian, dva pa na spletnih straneh tabloidov Hello in US Weekly. Vsi štirje članki imajo skupno temo preselitev prve dame Melanije Trump v Belo hišo. Primerjava ugotovitev diskurzne analize omogoča določitev jezikovnih vzorcev na mikrojezikovni ravni in pri medstavčnih povezavah v odvisnosti od tega, ali je bil članek objavljen v tabloidu ali v resnem časopisu. Opravljena analiza tranzitivnosti je pokazala, da v vseh štirih časopisnih člankih prevladuje materialni glagolski dogodek, ki opisuje dejanje preselitve prve dame v Belo hišo; največkrat uporabljena glagola te kategorije sta preseliti se in narediti. Članka objavljena v resnem časopisu The Guardian in tabloidu Us Weekly poleg materialnega glagolskega dogodka vsebujeta tudi veliko primerov glagola reči, ki označuje govorni glagolski dogodek, medtem ko sta članka iz resnega časopisa The Washington Post in tabloida Hello Magazine sestavljena iz številnih primerov istovetnostnega odnosnega glagolskega dogodka. Kot del analize tranzitivnosti so bili skrbno pregledani tudi udeleženci glagolskega dogodka. Ugotovitve kažejo, da je največkrat prisoten udeleženec imenovan vršilec in v skoraj vseh primerih materialnega glagolskega dogodka je to Melanija Trump. Izbrani časopisni članki so bili analizirani tudi na ravni diskurzne semantike, kjer so bili analizirani vezniki kot izraz razmerij med stavki. Vezalni vezniki so bili v največjem številu prisotni v časopisu The Guardian, primerjalnih veznikov ni bilo

7 moč najti v nobenem članku, medtem ko so bili posledični vezniki v največjem številu prisotni v članku tabloida Us Weekly. Po drugi strani pa so bili v vseh štirih člankih zelo pogosto uporabljeni časovni vezniki, ki so nakazovali časovno razmerje med opisovanimi dogodki. V nadaljnjem je primerjava člankov iz časopisov velikega formata in člankov iz tabloidov pokazala, da je pogostost prirednih in podrednih veznikov različna v analiziranih tekstih. Članka v časopisu The Guardian in v tabloidu Hello vsebujeta več podredno zloženih veznikov, medtem ko članka v časopisu The Washington Post in Us Weekly vsebujeta več priredno zloženih veznikov, kar zavrača trditev, da podredno zloženi vezniki prevladujejo v časopisih velikega formata. Tudi število stavkov v posamezni povedi se razlikuje med člankoma iz resnega časopisa in člankoma iz tabloida. Članek v časopisu velikega formata The Guardian vsebuje največ povedi s tremi stavki medtem ko članek v časopisu The Washington Post vsebuje večinoma povedi z enim stavkom. Na drugi strani se število stavkov v povedi razlikuje tudi med člankoma iz tabloidov; članek v Us Weekly ima v povprečju največ povedi z dvema stavkoma, medtem ko ima članek v Hello največ povedi s tremi stavki. Ključne besede: diskurzna analiza, tranzitivnost, vezniki, Halliday, časopisni članki, tabloidi, časopisi velikega formata

8 ABSTRACT The aim of the present master s thesis is to analyse the discourse of selected newspaper articles according to Michael Halliday s theory of systemic functional grammar (1985) and James Martin and David Rose s theory of cohesion (2003). The discourse analysis implemented in the thesis has 2 objectives. First, the study focuses on determining the type of processes, participants and circumstantials in every clause in the selected texts according to Halliday s transitivity analysis. Second, the thesis investigates discourse relations in the texts by analysing conjunctions according to Martin and Rose s theory of cohesion. The corpus used in the present master s thesis consists of 4 different articles that were collected from the newspapers websites; 2 articles were published on the websites of broadsheet newspapers Washington Post and The Guardian and 2 were published in the tabloids Hello and US Weekly. All the articles have one common topic: the First Lady Melania Trump s move to the White House. A comparison of the findings of the discourse analysis provides an insight into the patterns at the micro-linguistic level and into the intersentential connections in relation to the genre of the newspaper article. Keywords: discourse analysis, transitivity, conjunctions, Halliday, newspaper articles, tabloids, broadsheet newspapers

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION Rationale for the study Thesis Outline Methodology THEORETICAL PART Systemic Functional Linguistics Stratification and semiotic system of language Language as a system network DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Definition of discourse REGISTER Mode Tenor Field CLAUSE Definition of clause Definition of clause complex Structure of a clause complex SYSTEM OF A LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL STRATUM Definition of a lexico-grammar TRANSITIVITY SYSTEM Material process Mental process Behavioural process Verbal process Existential process Relational process DISCOURSE SEMANTICS Cohesion Conjunction NEWSPAPERS... 41

10 4 EMPIRICAL PART Transitivity analysis of processes in selected newspaper articles Discussion of results Material process type analysis Analysis of participants in material process Mental process type analysis Analysis of participants in mental process Verbal process type analysis Analysis of participants in verbal process Behavioural and existential process type analysis Analysis of participants in behavioural and existential processes Relational process types analysis Analysis of participants in relational processes Transitivity analysis of circumstance in selected newspaper articles Analysis of conjunctions in selected newspaper articles Analysis of conjunctions of addition Analysis of conjunctions of comparison Analysis of conjunctions of time Analysis of conjunctions of consequence Analysis of coordination and subordination in clauses Findings about texts readability CONCLUSION WORKS CITED APPENDIX... 92

11 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Characteristic features of spoken and written language Table 2 Formal vs informal language Table 3 Technical vs everyday language Table 4 Category of a material process Table 5 Logical relations Table 6 Percentage of Transitivity Analysis in The Guardian Article (Article 1) 47 Table 7 Percentage of Transitivity Analysis in The Washington Post Article (Article 2) Table 8 Percentage of Transitivity Analysis in Us Weekly Article (Article 3) Table 9 Percentage of Transitivity Analysis in Hello Article (Article 4) Table 10 Percentage of the material process in all articles Table 11 Percentage of actor in material process Table 12 Percentage of goal in material process Table 13 Percentage of the mental process type Table 14 Percentage of senser in mental process Table 15 Percentage of phenomenon in mental process Table 16 Percentage of the verbal process type Table 17 Percentage of sayer in verbal process Table 18 Percentage of verbiage in verbal process Table 19 Percentage of the existential process type Table 20 Percentage of existent in existential process Table 21 Percentage of the intensive attributive process type Table 22 Percentage of the circumstantial attributive process type Table 23 Percentage of token in relational process Table 24 Percentage of value in relational process Table 25 Percentage of carrier in relational process Table 26 Percentage of Attribute in relational process Table 27 Percentage of temporal circumstance Table 28 Percentage of spatial circumstance Table 29 Percentage of circumstance of extent Table 30 Percentage of circumstance of manner... 73

12 Table 31 Percentage of circumstance of cause Table 32 Percentage of circumstance of role Table 33 Percentage of additive conjunction Table 34 Percentage of contrastive conjunction Table 35 Percentage of successive conjunction Table 36 Percentage of simultaneous conjunction Table 37 Percentage of consequential conjunction Table 38 Percentage of purpose conjunction Table 39 Percentage of coordinating and subordinating conjunction Table 40 Percentage of clauses in a sentence Table 41 Percentage of clauses in a sentence Table 42 Percentage of clauses in a sentence Table 43 Percentage of clauses in a sentence Table 44 Flesch readability scores LIST OF PICTURES Picture 1 Semiotic process of choosing a lexical item specifying the sex... 6 Picture 2 Semiotic process of choosing a lexical item specifying the attitude... 7 Picture 3 Grammatical unit s network... 8 Picture 4 Spatial or interpersonal distance Picture 5 The experiential distance continuum Picture 6 The power continuum Picture 7 The contact continuum Picture 8 The affective involvement continuum Picture 9 Rank scale at the lexico-grammatical stratum in a systemic approach.. 21 Picture 10 Relational processes... 30

13 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale for the study Language plays a crucial role in human life, for people use it to express emotions, ideas and thoughts to others. By using language in a spoken or a written form, we are able to communicate with other members of our society about everyday happenings. A powerful medium of a written communication is a newspaper. Although being considered as a thing of the past, newspapers are nowadays still relevant and important because they provide public with information about occurrences around the world. Nevertheless, in our era of globalisation, mass media and thus newspapers have to adapt to the changes and technological developments of the last few decades have made it possible for the newspapers to be present on the World Wide Web. This master s thesis studies discourse of newspaper articles at the micro-linguistic level of sentences. Newspaper articles were selected for this discourse analysis for a number of reasons. Firstly, articles published in a broadsheet newspaper are usually written by experienced professionals of journalism and therefore reflect discourse characteristics of a quality newspaper. Tabloids on the other hand represent the other end of the quality spectrum and are regarded as a low quality source of news. Secondly, English newspapers serve well as a source of information to all parts of the world and due to the internet, online versions of newspapers published in foreign countries become relatively inexpensively and easily accessible for everyone to read. Thirdly, studying discourse of a broadsheet newspaper and a tabloid can unveil nature and viewpoints of each publication about the topics of their discourse. 1.2 Thesis Outline This thesis is divided into 2 major parts; the theoretical part with 3 main chapters and the empirical part with 4 main chapters. 1

14 Chapter 1 introduces the rationale of the thesis, discusses the thesis outline and hypotheses and introduces methodology of the present study. Chapter 2 presents the theory of systemic functional linguistics, its stratification and language as a semiotic system. Chapter 2.3 leads into the overview of the discourse analysis and chapter 2.4 discusses register and its three variables. Chapter 2.5 provides a theoretical background of a clause and a clause complex and chapter 2.6 presents the system of a lexico-grammatical stratum. The core of the theoretical part of this master s thesis is chapter 2.7 that outlines M.A.K. Halliday s theory of transitivity, where all 9 kinds of processes in a transitivity system are discussed with examples given. Chapter 2.8 outlines J.R. Martin and David Rose s theory of conjunction and chapter 3 concludes the theoretical part of this master s thesis with discussion of differences between a broadsheet newspaper and a tabloid. Chapter 4 leads into the empirical part of the study. In this chapter, steps of the performed discourse analysis are presented, followed by the chapter 4.1 that presents the findings of the transitivity analysis of all processes found in selected newspaper articles. The results are presented in 4 tables and discussed below each table. Next is the discussion of results, in which findings of the analysis carried out in all 4 articles are presented in detail; the findings are first discussed and then elaborated with examples from the texts. Chapters to all present in detail the findings of each process and each participant involved in a process; discussed are material process and its participants actor and goal, mental process and its participants senser and phenomenon, behavioural process with participants behaver and behaviour, verbal process with participants sayer and verbiage, existential process and participant existent and relational processes with participants token, value, attribute and carrier. Chapter 4.3 discusses results of analysis of circumstance. Chapter 4.4 presents results of conjunction analysis in selected newspaper articles, presenting the percentage of conjunction of addition, conjunction of comparison, conjunction of time and conjunction of consequence. The percentage of occurrence of each type of conjunction is detailed in following 4 chapters, from to The presence of subordination and coordination in a clause in selected newspaper articles is discussed in chapter 4.4.5, where the results are presented in tables. After that, chapter 4.5 reviews the texts readability 2

15 test. The present master s thesis concludes with the chapter 5, in which the main conclusions are drawn. Research questions and hypotheses The analysis of the texts will be used to answer research questions with regard to the realization of transitivity and conjunction. The research question regarding transitivity will focus on which type of process is the most frequently used and which participant is the most common actor. With regard to conjunction, the focus will be on the analysis of subordination and coordination in the texts. All the results will be interpreted by comparing tabloid and broadsheet articles. The research questions in the present master s thesis are: 1. Does the material aspect of an event about the discussed topic prevail in all the newspaper articles? 2. Is Melania Trump the prevailing actor in all the articles? 3. Do the articles in the broadsheet newspapers contain more subordination than the articles in the tabloids? 4. Do the articles in the tabloids include fewer compound sentences than the articles in the broadsheet newspapers? 1.3 Methodology The 1 st part of the master s thesis employs the descriptive method with the purpose of presenting the theoretical frameworks of Halliday s theory of transitivity and Martin and Rose s theory of cohesion for better understanding of the analysis implemented in the following chapters. The 2 nd part of the thesis, the empirical part, employs the discourse analysis to represent kinds of processes and conjunctions present in the selected articles. The selected texts are compared to one another first at the level of lexico-grammar via transitivity analysis and then at the level of discourse semantics via conjunction analysis. In the following step, findings of the discourse analysis are interpreted via the quantitative method. 3

16 2 THEORETICAL PART 2.1 Systemic Functional Linguistics Systemic Functional Linguistics, often abbreviated to SFL, is a theoretical approach to language, developed mainly by the semiotic linguist Michael Halliday in the early 1960s, and is in the field of linguistics used as a framework for purposes of discourse analysis. As a recognised scholar, Michael Halliday has transformed views about the language system with his prime work Introduction to Functional Grammar (1985). In it, Halliday shifts the focus of linguistics from a structural approach to placing the function of language as central: Being a functional grammar means that priority is given to the view from above ; that is, grammar is seen as a resource for making meaning it is a semanticky kind of grammar. But the focus of attention is still on the grammar itself, (Halliday and Matthiessen 2014, 49). Halliday was the first scholar who viewed language as social semiotic, explaining that to mean is to act semiotically (Halliday 2013, 16 in Fontaine, Bartlett and O Grady 2013) and thus language should be viewed as a resource for expressing meanings that are created within a certain social system Stratification and semiotic system of language In systemic functional linguistics, language can be analysed in terms of four strata, which are context, discourse semantics, lexico-grammar and phonologygraphology. There are three key dimensions that are part of the stratum context: field (topic or focus of the activity), tenor (social roles and relationships between participants) and mode (aspects of the channel communication, e.g., monologue/dialogue, spoken/written), (Eggins, 2004). Suzanne Eggins illustrates the impact of these dimensions on language use: we will not use language in the same way to write as to speak (mode variation), to talk to our boss as to talk to our lover (tenor variation) and to talk about linguistics as to talk about jogging (field 4

17 variation), (2004, 9). According to this view, we need to explore the context of the text as one of the four strata when we want to answer functional questions about language. The stratum of lexico-grammar is applicable to the organisation of words into utterances and discourse semantics stratum involves three functional components, which Michael Halliday s Introduction to Functional Grammar glossed as metafunctions: ideational metafunction (represents the speakers representation of an experience in a language; often described as the content function of language, since it expresses individual s experience of a culture and environment) interpersonal metafunction (concerns role relationships, attitudes and judgements with other participants) textual metafunction (component that provides the texture and makes language relevant; this metafunction explains how the text is structured as a message) (2004, 361). Semantic complexity of these metafunctions is evident in the analysis of language as a semiotic system, which in turn can be explained with a traffic lights system. In Suzanne Eggins Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics one can find following explanation of the traffic lights system: 1. it consists of a finite set of choices or oppositions: this system contains only three choices since the traffic lights can only be either red or green or amber; 2. the choices in the system are discrete: when you drive up to the intersection, the lights can only be one colour at a time; 3. it is the oppositions, not the substances, in the system that are important: it does not matter exactly what shades of red or green or amber we use. All that matters is that red is not green that each of the three coloured lights is different from the others, (2004, 13). 5

18 From Eggins interpretation of traffic lights system we can deduce that coloured lights are part of the sign system, since every coloured light is encoding or expressing an action to a participant in a traffic system to be carried out, correspondingly to social conventions (Eggins 2004, 13). A sign system presented in the traffic light example consists of two components: content (exemplifying which behaviour the lights are supposed to prompt) and expression (realisation of a particular colour light). The leading scholar who developed theory of a semiotic system was Swiss linguist Ferdinand Saussure with his formulation of content expression levels of a sign. The same model of a semiotic system with two levels can be applied to a language since language also involves content expression sets. For example, if we are speaking with someone about a third party, we are in a predicament of having to choose among several possible lexical items to describe the one we are talking about: human being, man, female, person, guy, buddy, chap, girl, mother, wife, etc. Choosing a word from this list involves the semiotic process of construing a meaning where we are faced with a decision which variation of a meaning we want to encode in a conversation. Following figures illustrate these processes of choosing a word in a semiotic process. Picture 1 Semiotic process of choosing a lexical item specifying the sex Specifying sex: male, female Lexical item Not specifying sex: person, human being Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004, 16 6

19 Picture 2 Semiotic process of choosing a lexical item specifying the attitude Specifying the attitude Positive attitude: buddy Lexical item Negative attitude: chap Not specifying the attitude: man Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics 2004, 16 These figures show that traffic light system can be applied to language where we also have arbitrary content-expression fusions. Figure 2 demonstrates that by choosing a lexical item male for example, we are encoding the meaning of a person with typical male features and characteristics. Furthermore, the arbitrariness of the content-expression pair can be illustrated with the lexical item buddy and the sequence of letters b-u-d-d-y, where in English the meaning of a close friend is realised by the combination of the aforementioned sound sequence. Nevertheless, language proves to be more complex semiotic system than the example of the traffic light system, since in language, meaning is encoded by words, which in turn are encoded by sounds. Therefore, we can say that there are three levels in language, namely meaning, words and sounds, while the traffic light system consists of two strata: meaning and lighting. 2.2 Language as a system network According to systemic functional linguistics, language can be explained as a system network, consisting of aforementioned ideational, interpersonal and textual metafunctions. The network system is complex, for it contains several different subnetworks (such as the network of transitivity), which in turn involve several different systems of semantic features. The following figure represents grammatical unit s network: 7

20 Picture 3 Grammatical unit s network clause finite-clause +Subject [nominal-group]; +Finite [finite-verb]; nonfinite-clause nominal-group +Head [noun]; grammatical-unit group adjectival-group +Head [adjective]; word adverbial-group +Head [adverb]; prepositional-phrase +Op [preposition]; +Complementiser [nominal-group]; Source: The figure represents structural choices available for a speaker or a writer in a particular linguistic context. Such set of structural choices, in linguistics called features, builds a system and a set of several systems together composes a system network, which must follow structural rules of that choices. For example, features clause, group and word constitute one system, while features subject and finite form another system. To illustrate a network of several systems, we can take head from a nominal group, finite from a finite clause, and head from adverbial group to construct a declarative sentence: she cooks perfectly. Such approach to language where the utterances produced are the result of meaningful choices is in linguistics called systemic approach. According to Halliday s work Language as Social Semiotic (1978, 113), language is a social semiotic system with choices or features functioning as an integral instrument used to form a process of making a meaning. 8

21 Systemic functional linguistics is also functional in its orientation because it focuses on language function rather than language structure. The basic assumption of systemic functional linguistics is that language has evolved from three kinds of meaning, which all influence structure of the language. Halliday claims that language includes generalized meanings or as he calls them metafunctions; there is ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and textual metafunction (cf. Chapter 2.1.1, p.4). a.) Ideational metafunction Ideational metafunction incorporates the representation of reality and our experience of the world around us. Halliday divides this function further into experiential and logical function. Experiential function is expressed through grammatical choices in the clause that one makes in order to construe meanings about the outer and inner world, mainly in the system of transitivity or process type system. The second component of the ideational metafunction is the logical function between two or more clauses in a clause complex. Logical function of language consists of two systems: one is the system of taxis, which describes the type of interdependency between clauses and the other is the logico-semantic system, which is concerned with the type of meaning relationship between clauses. (Halliday 2003, 16). b.) Interpersonal function Interpersonal function is concerned with social interactions between participants. Halliday termed these complex and diverse interactions as encounters, arguing that they range all the way from the rapidly changing microencounters of daily life most centrally, semiotic encounters where we set up and maintain complex patterns of dialogue to the more permanent institutionalized relationships that collectively constitute the social bond, (Halliday 2003, 16). 9

22 The interpersonal function is realised through mood and modality. c.) Textual function Halliday (2003, 16) suggests that there is also the third strand of meaning in a language, textual function, concerned with the process of text creation and organisation. Relevant grammatical systems for the textual function are theme and rheme and system of cohesion, which includes features reference, substitution and ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. 2.3 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Definition of discourse Discourse as an abstract construct can be approached from different perspectives. In linguistics, there are many overlapping and conflicting definitions of this term that all stem from various theoretical standpoints. Online Oxford dictionary defines discourse as: written or spoken communication or debate and linguistically speaking as a connected series of utterances; a text or conversation (oxforddictionaries.com 2017) Online Merriam Webster dictionary explains discourse in a similar fashion: connected speech or writing and a linguistic unit (such as a conversation or a story) larger than a sentence (merriam-webster.com 2017) Linguist Norman Fairclough draws together language and its social elements to define discourse: discourse is used in linguistics to refer to extended samples of either spoken or written language. [...], this sense of discourse emphasizes interaction between speaker and addressee or between writer and reader [...], as well as the situational context of language use [...]. Finally, discourse is also used for different types of 10

23 language used in different sorts of social situation (e.g. newspaper discourse, advertising discourse ), (Fairclough 1992, 3-4). In recent decades, term discourse has been adopted into various academic disciplines and this diversity is manifested in variety of discourse definitions. Thus, a newspaper discourse is in its substance completely different from a discourse of advertisement or a medicine discourse. Nevertheless, the study of any discourse in any area of academics is referred to as discourse analysis. Deborah Schiffrin explores in her work Approaches to Discourse from 1994 approaches to discourse analysis; she suggests that there are six different approaches: speech act theory, interactional sociolinguistics, the ethnography of communication, pragmatics, conversational analysis and variation analysis. Halliday s systemic functional linguistics classifies these approaches into critical and non-critical. Critical approaches study power and impact of the discourse on society and the construction of ideologies and beliefs, while non-critical approaches analyse descriptive features of discourse. Research in this master s thesis is based on non-critical approaches with the goal to study language use through the analysis and investigation of discursive features in selected articles from a broadsheet paper and a tabloid. 2.4 REGISTER Systemicists divide context into two major categories, these being register and genre. J. R. Martin and David Rose explain genre in Working with Discourse as a staged, goal-oriented social process. Social because we participate in genres with other people; goal-oriented because we use genres to get things done; staged because it usually takes us a few steps to reach goals, (2003, 7-8). The second constitute of context is register, which being central to Halliday s theory of language, is defined as the clustering of semantic features according to situation type, (Halliday 1978, 68). At the level of register, there are three dimensions that directly impact our use of language. First register variable is mode, which concerns role that language plays in the interaction, tenor as second variable 11

24 investigates kinds of relationships between interactants and field as a variable focuses on the topic of discussion or writing. The relationship between register and genre is for systemic functional linguists defined as inter-stratal (David and Rose 2003, 254) with register realising genre. In following chapters, all three variables of register are outlined and discussed Mode Mode is a register variable that, according to Halliday, refers to the role language plays in a particular situation. As one of three register dimensions, it is symbolic organisation of the text, the status that it has and its function in the context, (Halliday and Hasan 1985, 12). In his book Language, Register and Genre James R. Martin developed the idea of bistratal model of context with two simultaneous continua, which both define distance between language and situation: spatial/interpersonal distance and experiential distance. Spatial/interpersonal distance is a continuum involving possibilities of immediate feedback between interactants, (Eggins 2004, 91). Picture 4 Spatial or interpersonal distance conversation telephone radio newspaper call article visual contact no visual no visual no visual no visual contact contact contact contact aural contact aural contact no aural one-way aural no aural contact contact contact Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004, 91 The left pole of a continuum represents a situation, where interactants are in a visual and aural contact, for example sitting in a café and carrying a conversation. Here, we have a possibility of an immediate feedback to express the (dis)agreement with the other person. The other side of the continuum involves a delayed feedback where there is no face to face communication; for example, a situation of writing a newspaper article with no visual or aural contact between a 12

25 journalist and a reader. Furthermore, there are situations that involve only aural contact, such as a telephone call or a radio broadcast with a one-way aural contact but no immediate feedback. Following Martin s model of context, the second continuum involves experiential distance, categorising situations based on the distance between language and social process or activity. Picture 5 The experiential distance continuum playing commentating detailing an event composing a board game a sports game in the newspaper a (non-)fictional article story language used as an ACTION language used as a REFLECTION Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004, 91 At the left side of the continuum one can find situations in which language is used as an action, such as playing a game of cards where language is used actively by interactants talking to each other. The other extreme of the continuum explains language as a reflection on a situation, for here language is the tool for construing social process going on. A prime example of such activity where language is used to reflect on any issue would be writing a piece of a newspaper article. Looking at extreme points of both continua discussed above we can summarize that they reveal key characteristics of spoken and written language. Typical for a spoken mode of a language use is that it is an interactive activity with two or more participants and thus is face-to-face kind of communication, happening in the same place at the same time. Furthermore, language is in such situations used to achieve some goal or accomplish some task, interactants act spontaneous and these discourses are informal and everyday kind of. On the other hand, written language situations are non-interactive with only one participant, there is no faceto-face communication and the participant is on their own. In such situation, language is perceived as a reflection on an action and includes planning, drafting and rewriting if needed, and is thus not spontaneous and usually occurs in a formal setting. 13

26 Table 1 Characteristic features of spoken and written language SPOKEN LANGUAGE turn-taking structure context dependent dynamic composition interactive staging open-ended presence of spontaneity phenomena (hesitations, interruptions, overlap, incomplete clauses) everyday lexis non-standard grammar grammatical complexity lexically sparse WRITTEN LANGUAGE monologic structure context independent synoptic composition rhetorical staging closed, finite polished, well executed final draft prestige lexis standard grammar grammatical simplicity lexically dense Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004, 93 Table presented above lists linguistic features of spoken and written language situations. While spoken language is composed of turn-taking sequences, written language situation is organised as a monologue and is not context dependent, whereas a spoken situation of language is dependent on the context of interaction. Another key characteristic of a spoken discourse is its dynamic structure because language accompanies a social process as an action while written texts on the other hand consist of synoptic structure and are closed due to the role of language as a reflection. Furthermore, there are instances of spontaneity phenomena, such as false starts, hesitations, interruptions, overlapping or incomplete clauses during the interaction, while written constructions of a language situation do not contain them. Difference can also be seen in the choice of lexis, which is more prestige in written texts that are lexically dense in comparison to the spoken discourse Tenor Tenor is a register variable defined by Halliday and Hasan as the social role relationships played by interactants, (Halliday and Hasan 1985, 12). As one of 3 14

27 register variables, tenor concerns the effect that social roles of interactants have on the use of language, since their relationship can be symmetrical, for example between two friends, or asymmetrical between a professor and a student. Building on the previous work by Cate Poynton (1985), Suzanne Eggins suggests that tenor is a complex made up of 3 continua: power, contact and affective involvement (2004, ). Continuum of power depicts interactants roles in terms of equal and unequal power in communication. The left pole of the continuum classifies relationships with equal power, such as that of two friends. On the other hand, unequal power can be explained with the example of a professor and a student. Picture 6 The power continuum continuum of POWER relationship of equal power relationship of unequal power Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004, 100 Contact continuum explores the frequency of contact between interactants. On one side of the continuum pole is a situation of a frequent contact, such as that between a mother and a child and on the other side is the occasional contact, such as that between a doctor and a patient. Picture 7 The contact continuum continuum of CONTACT frequent contact occasional contact Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004, 100 Affective involvement is the third continuum, which is part of the register variable tenor. This continuum deals with the emotional relationship between interactants in a situation. On left side of the continuum are relationships with high affective involvement, such as a relationship between spouses and on the right side are 15

28 relationships with low affective involvement, such as a relationship between acquaintances. Picture 8 The affective involvement continuum continuum of AFFECTIVE INVOLVEMENT high low Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004, 100 Exploring these 3 continua of tenor brings us to the contrast between 2 situation types; there is a formal and informal situation type. Informal type of a situation involves 2 or more interactants with equal power, who have a frequent contact with each other and are highly emotionally involved, such as a mother and her child. A formal type of a situation can be presented with a meeting between a patient and their doctor. In such interaction, people involved do not exercise equal power, their contact is not frequent and they are emotionally low involved. Furthermore, difference between a formal and an informal situation can be recognised via vocabulary. Attitudinal lexis is characteristic for an informal situation, in which we express our evaluation of the issue; an informal situation of a language use is also marked with colloquial lexis, including abbreviated forms and slang. Formal language on the other hand tends to consist of neutral and formal lexis with full forms and no slang. Politeness is also characteristic of a formal language, while swearing and interruptions are commonly used in an informal language. Moreover, vocatives or terms of address are another typical characteristic of a formal language. Vocatives are used when we call someone because we want to get their attention and they differ in informal and formal situation, for example Mr. Smith and Pete. These 2 examples show us that with informal language we use first names or nicknames, while in a formal setting we address someone by their title. Further difference between a formal and an informal use of language can be explained via the clause structure. In a situation when we want to get someone to do some chore for us, we would use imperative in an informal situation, for example do the dishes, take trash outside; however, in 16

29 a formal situation, we tend to avoid imperative and rather use interrogative or question, for example would you mind taking the trash outside. The use of modal verbs such as would or could signals modulation and is an example of a grammatical metaphor. Table 2 Formal vs informal language INFORMAL LANGUAGE attitudinal lexis colloquial lexis abbreviated forms slang interruptions, overlap first names, nicknames modal verbs expressing probability modal verbs expressing opinion FORMAL LANGUAGE neutral lexis formal lexis full forms no presence of slang careful turn-taking titles, no names modal verbs expressing deference modal verbs expressing suggestion Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004, Field Field is a register variable often defined as topic or social activity of a situation in question. From a perspective of technicality, field can be divided into technical or specialized situation and commonsense or everyday situation. Suzanne Eggins explains that technical situation would be characterized by a significant degree of assumed knowledge among the interactants about the activity focus, whereas in an everyday (or commonsense) situation, the only assumed knowledge is common knowledge (2004, 107). The difference is noticeable in the choice of lexis; a technical situation consists of technical nouns, verbs and acronyms. Moreover, technicality reflects at the level of syntax with abbreviations and non-standard syntax. 17

30 Table 3 Technical vs everyday language TECHNICAL LANGUAGE technical terms terms known only to the experts acronyms abbreviated syntax technical action processes attributive (descriptive) processes EVERYDAY LANGUAGE everyday terms words we all understand full names standard syntax identifying processes defining terms Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004, 110 M.A.K. Halliday was interested in solving the question regarding the aspects of context in a situation and how they affect our use of language. Register variables discussed in previous chapters accentuate that we should differentiate between spoken and written language situations, since spoken language is organised according to turn-taking, while written language has a monologic organisation. Secondly, social role relationships that interactants play in a situation are also of great importance. Power, contact and affective involvement all influence interactants conduct in a situation in question. While a person is emotionally more involved in a conversation with a close friend, he or she might keep a distance while talking to an acquaintance. Lastly, situations can also vary according to technicality; a person can use every day language in one situation, while some other situation requires technical or specialised language. While studying register variables, Halliday came to conclusions that: - field of a text can be associated with [...] ideational meaning; these ideational meaning are realised through the Transitivity and Clause Complex patterns of the grammar; - the mode of a text can be associated with [...] textual meaning; these textual meanings are realised through the Theme patterns of the grammar; 18

31 - the tenor of a text can be associated with [...] interpersonal meanings; these interpersonal meanings are realised through the Mood patterns of the grammar, (qtd. in Eggins 2004, 111). 2.5 CLAUSE Definition of clause Language consists of individual linguistic units that are part of the hierarchical order. In English, morpheme represents the smallest grammatical unit, several morphemes make up word, which in turn constitutes phrase together with other words, phrases then build clause and several clauses together constitute sentence. the morpheme the word the phrase the clause the sentence A clause is a unit of grammatical organisation next below the sentence in rank and in traditional grammar said to consist of a subject and predicate, (oxforddictionaries.com 2017). Macmillan dictionary offers a definition in a similar way: a group of words that contains a verb and often a subject, object, complement and adjunct. A sentence consists of one or more clauses, (macmillandictionary.com 2017) Definition of clause complex When 2 or more clauses are put together to build a meaningful unit, they are called clause complex. Suzanne Eggins defines clause complex as a grammatical and semantic unit that occurs in both spoken and written language, (Eggins 2004, 255). In a spoken situation, we make pauses between clause complexes, while in written language the boundaries between clause complexes are signalled by punctuation marks. The opposite of clause complex is a single clause unit defined as clause simplex. Building on Halliday s finding, Eggins explains clause simplex as a multivariate structure and clause complex as a univariate structure, (ebd., 257). Characteristic of a multivariate structure such as a clause simplex is that its 19

32 elements differ in their function and realisation, for example, a clause consists of a subject, finite, predicator, complement and adjunct. In a multivariate structure, such elements that contribute to the meaning of the structure can occur only once in a clause otherwise they build a new clause. On the other hand, a univariate structure is made up of iterative structures, where same kind of elements can be repeated because clause complex consists of series of clauses that are linked together one after another Structure of a clause complex Clause complex is a combination of several clauses and is in the system of stratification located within the lexico-grammatical stratum. Looking at the organisation of a clause complex, one can recognise two systems within a clause complex. The system of taxis incorporates clauses with interdependency relationship, (Eggins 2004, 258). Such relationship can be paratactic, where clauses are treated to be equal, independent entities, (ibid.) and hypotactic, where there is one main clause in a clause complex and others are in a dependent relationship. The other system responsible for the formation of the clause complex is the logico-semantic system. Here we are dealing with a meaning relationship between clauses in a complex. Suzanne Eggins explores the relation of clauses, claiming that clauses can be correlated to each other through projection by quoting or reporting of one clause or through expansion, where one clause extends on the meaning of the other, (2004, 259). Developing the idea of projection further, Eggins suggests that projection can happen through locution, where what is projected is speech or through idea, where what is projected is thoughts. Expansion on the other hand offers three choices: elaboration with relations of restatement or equivalence, extension with relations of addition and enhancement with relations of development, (ibid.). 20

33 2.6 SYSTEM OF A LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL STRATUM Definition of a lexico-grammar Lexico-grammar is a term used in systemic functional linguistics to describe interdependency between a system of vocabulary (lexis) and syntax (grammar). Term lexico-grammar was first introduced by M.A.K. Halliday who says that The heart of language is the abstract level of coding that is the lexico-grammar; [...] the purpose of introducing the more cumbersome term lexicogrammar is simply to make explicit the point that vocabulary is also a part of it, along with syntax and morphology. A lexicogrammar is not a closed, determinate system, (2006, 194). Following Halliday s model of language, we can define lexicogrammar as a linguistic structure, where 2 levels, that of lexis and that of grammar, are not seen as independent, but rather as mutually dependently combined into one stratum. Suzanne Eggins explored system of lexico-grammar further, suggesting part, then, of what lexico-grammar does for language is to give it a creative potential: a way of creating new meaning, by inventing new sings, [...] by simply arranging existing sings in different ways, or by using existing structures in atypical ways, (2004, 119). As a system, lexicogrammatical stratum consists of a number of different units. Picture 9 Rank scale at the lexico-grammatical stratum in a systemic approach clause clause complex group / phrase word morpheme Based on Eggins, Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2004,

34 Unit clause clause complex is ranked the highest, for there is no sentence in this scale, since sentence is only part of the written language. This unit consists of elements subject, finite, predicator, complement and adjunct and describes structures in which a participant is carrying out an action in a particular time and space. Unit group/phrase includes structures, where there is one essential element, known as the head word, and other elements labelled as modifiers that modify the main element. In linguistics, morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit and is in the lexico-grammatical stratum ranked below the group/phrase unit. At this level, linguists concern themselves with possible combinations of free and bound morpheme to create a new word. 2.7 TRANSITIVITY SYSTEM Halliday developed a theory of three metafunctions of language for the analysis of a lexico-grammatical stratum. Each of three metafunctions represents a different aspect of the world and concerns different mode of meaning in a clause. Firstly, textual metafunction perceives language as a coherent entity and views clause as a message with the purpose to signify discourse. Structurally, textual metafunction can be divided into theme and rheme component. Secondly, interpersonal metafunction concerns social relations between interactants and is realised through a mood system. Thirdly, ideational metafunction concerns the representation of reality in a language and consists of experiential and logical meaning. Experiential mode of meaning is in language expressed through transitivity system. In linguistics, transitivity has been traditionally understood as a grammatical feature expressing whether a verb takes a direct object and is thus transitive or whether it does not and is intransitive. Halliday, however, has developed a new concept of transitivity. He suggests that analysis of a clause according to each metafunction produces a different kind of structure. An analysis according to ideational metafunction breaks the clause into process, participants and circumstances. In the interpersonal metafunction, clause analysis produces mood 22